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Until the beginning of the 20th century, government and scholarly documents in Vietnam were written in classical Chinese (called ''chữ nho'' "Confucian script," or ''chữ Hán'' "Chinese script"), using Chinese characters with Vietnamese approximation of Middle Chinese pronunciations. At the same time popular novels and poetry in Vietnamese were written in the ''chữ nôm'' script, which used Chinese characters for Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary and an adapted set of characters for the native vocabulary.〔Asian & Pacific quarterly of cultural and social affairs - Volumes 20 - 21 Cultural and Social Centre for the Asian and Pacific Region 1988 - Page 7 "... known script that was used by the Vietnamese, the "Southerners," to transcribe their language, in contrast to the Chinese ideographs (called chữ Hán i.e., "Chinese script," or chữ nho i.e. "Confucian script") of the "Northerners," the Chinese."〕 The two scripts coexisted until the era of French Indochina when the Latin alphabet quốc ngữ script gradually became the written medium of both government and popular literature.〔Vietnam 10 - Page 522 Nick Ray, Yu-Mei Balasingamchow, Iain Stewart - 2009 "For centuries, the Vietnamese language was written in standard Chinese characters (chữ nho). Around the 13th century, the Vietnamese devised their own writing system called chữ nôm (or just nôm), which was created by combining two Chinese words or by using single Chinese characters for their phonetic value. Both writing systems were in use until the 20th century – official business and scholarship was conducted in chữ nho, while chữ nôm was used for popular literature. The Latin-based quốc ngữ script, widely used since WWI, was developed in the 17th century by Alexandre de Rhodes (see the boxed text, right). Quốc ngữ served to undermine the position of Mandarin officials, whose power was based on traditional scholarship in chữ nho and chữ nôm, scripts that were largely inaccessible to the masses."〕 ==Terminology== The terms chữ Hán ("Han script") and chữ nho ( "Confucian script") are largely interchangeable.〔Nguyễn Đình Hòa ''Vietnamese'' London Oriental and African Language Library Vol.9. John Benjamins Publishing Company 1997 Page 6 "1.7 Writing Systems - The language has made use of three different writing systems: first, the Chinese characters, ... 1.7.1 Chữ nho or chũ Hán - Chinese written symbols, shared with Japanese and Korean—the two other Asian cultures that were ... Indeed from the early days of Chinese rule (111 B.C. to A.D. 939) the Chinese governors taught the Vietnamese not only Chinese calligraphy, but also the texts of Chinese history, philosophy and classical literature (while the spoken language ..."〕 Both mean writing of Chinese in Chinese characters. However, in modern Vietnamese usage chữ Hán can also refer to characters in the modern Chinese or Japanese languages - for example in reference by the journal of the Linguistics Academy of Vietnam to the introduction of pinyin in the PRC in 1958.〔''Ngôn ngữ & đời sống'' (Language and Life magazine) Hội ngôn ngữ học Việt Nam (Linguistics Academy of Vietnam) 2006 Nos 125/134 - Page 35 - "Phiên âm tự mẫu" là bộ chữ cái La tinh dùng đề chú âm (phố thông) cho chữ Hán, được Chinh phù Trung Quốc công bố năm 1958." Translation "Pinyin Zibiao" is the Latin alphabet used to give the pronunciation (Putonghua) to Chinese kanji, promulgated by the Chinese government in 1958.〕 The term chữ ("character") is in regular use in Vietnamese, for example "chữ thập" means the Chinese "10" character (, Vietnamese ''thập'', used as the "cross" in ''Chữ thập đỏ'' "Red Cross"). The ideogram for ''chữ'' ( "script") is normally not found in Chinese printed texts and Unicode character 21A38 may also may fail to display in html browsers〔(Unicode character 21A38 )〕) and is sometimes substituted by the character for ''tự'' ( "character"), the characters ''nho'' ( "Confucian") and ''Hán'' () are part of the common Chinese-Japanese-Korean-SinoVietnamese character set. chữ Nho is often capitalised in Vietnamese texts. Nho is written and pronounced with a different tone from ''chữ nhỏ,'' "minuscule font".〔Ái Nguyễn, ''Từ điển công nghệ thông tin điện tử viễn thông Anh-Việt'' English-Vietnamese Information Technology Dictionary. Nhà xuất bản Khoa học và kỹ thuật Ban từ điển. Science and Technology Publishing House 2000 Page 838 "... minuscule chữ nhỏ, chữ thường Trong in ấn, ký tư thường."〕 The term Hán tự ((:hǎːn tɨ̂ˀ) , "a Chinese character") is mainly used in typographic, calligraphic and lexical contexts, and used in Vietnamese to describe Sino-Vietnamese characters, as well as Japanese kanji or modern Chinese hanzi.〔Effective Designs of the Computer-Assisted Chinese Learning Program for Beginning Learners of Chinese Characters MT Lu, G Hallman, J Black 2010 "A character is a logograph used in written Taiwanese (Hanji), written Japanese (Kanji), written Chinese (Hanzi), written Korean (Hanja), and written Vietnamese (hán tự). A logograph is a grapheme which represents a word or a morpheme."〕〔Hoa Sơn Hò̂ng ''Hán tự nhập môn: tự học chữ Hán Âm Việt'' (Introduction to Hán tự - Teach Yourself Hán script with Vietnamese pronunciation) 1992〕〔Phan Van Giuong ''Tuttle Compact Vietnamese Dictionary: Vietnamese-English'' 2008 Page 392 "tự 1 n. (= chũ) Chinese character, letter: courtesy name: Hán tự Chinese character; biếu tự fancy name, nickname; van tự writing, written language"〕 The term Hán tự is still used in relation to individual ideograms, (or Chinese hanzi or Japanese kanji); an individual character is distinguished as "chữ," for example "chữ vật ()" for the Chinese character "thing" () pronounced "vật" in Vietnamese.〔''Tứ thư bình giải'' Lý Minh Tuấn biên soạn, Nguyễn Minh Tiến hiệu đính 1990 "Như thế, trí có nghĩa là thông suốt, thấu hiểu sự lý. Ở đây, trí là dùng miệng nói để thành tựu cho vật. Trong Hán tự, chữ vật () chỉ chung các loài trong trời đất."〕 The term Hán văn ( "Han literature") means Chinese literature. Hán-Việt or "Sino-Vietnamese" is a term which is used by modern scholars in relation to Vietnam's Chinese-language texts to emphasise local characteristics and particularly the phonology of the Chinese written in Vietnam, though in regard to syntax and vocabulary this Sino-Vietnamese was no more different from Chinese used in Beijing than medieval English Latin was different from the Latin of Rome.〔David G Marr ''Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920-1945'' 1984 p141 "Because the Chinese characters were pronounced according to Vietnamese preferences, and because certain stylistic modifications occurred over time, later scholars came to refer to a hybrid "Sino-Vietnamese" (Han-Viet) language. However, there would seem to be no more justification for this term than for a Fifteenth Century "Latin-English" versus the Latin written contemporaneously in Rome.8"〕 The term "Hán-Việt transliteration" is also used for Chinese place names in Vietnam.〔Essays into Vietnamese pasts Keith Weller Taylor, John K. Whitmore - 1995 p20 "Phu falls into this category; it was originally a Tang (Chinese) word but was written in a Hán-Việt transliteration. ... Dang VSn Lung and Thu Linh hypothesize that Phu Dong is the Hán-Việt transliteration of the name of an ancient Tay area, .."〕 The term chữ nôm ( "script for talking") refers to the former transcription system for vernacular Vietnamese-language texts, written using a mixture of original Chinese characters and locally coined nôm characters not found in Chinese to phonetically represent Vietnamese sounds."〔Hugh Dyson Walker East Asia A New History -2012 Page 262 "...chu nom, Vietnamese transcription, using Chinese and nom characters for Vietnamese sounds."〕 However the character set for chữ nôm is extensive, up to 20,000, and both arbitrary in composition and inconsistent in pronunciation.〔Hannas: Asia's Orthg DILM Paper - Page 82 Wm. C. Hannas - 1997 "The linguistic defects are the same as those noted throughout this book for Chinese characters generally, caused by the large number of tokens (some twenty thousand in chu' nom), the arbitrariness of their composition, and the inconsistent "〕 Hán - Nôm may mean either both Hán and Nôm taken together, as in the research remit of Hanoi's Hán-Nôm Institute, or refer to texts which are written in a mixture of Hán and Nôm, or refer to some Hán texts with parallel Nôm translations. There is a significant orthographic overlap between Hán and Nôm and many characters are used in both Hán and Nôm with the same reading.〔Eva Hung, Judy Wakabayashi ''Asian translation traditions'' 2005 Page 174 "A large portion of the lexicon of the Vietnamese language in recent centuries derives from Hán. Consequently, there is a significant orthographic overlap between Hán and Nôm, which is to say that many characters are used in both with the same meaning. This is primarily a lexical, not a syntactic, phenomenon, although Hán grammar did influence Nôm prose to a relatively significant extent (Xtankevich 1986)"〕 The term quốc ngữ ( "National language") means Vietnamese written in romanised script. This is different from the historical term ''quốc âm'' ( "National sound") meaning chữ nôm, found in the title of the 16th Century poetry collection ''Quốc âm thi tập''.〔John DeFrancis ''Colonialism and language policy in Viet Nam'' 1977 Page 88 "Contemporary handling is indicated by the following entries for Quoc Ngu and the related term Quoc Am from the work by ... must become the writing of the country' he may specifically have had 88 Colonialism and Language Policy in Viet Nam.. "〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「History of writing in Vietnam」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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